A programming language is an artificial language Language is a term most commonly used to refer to so called "natural languages" — the forms of communication considered peculiar to humankind. By extension the term also refers to the type of human thought process which creates and uses language. Essential to both meanings is the systematic creation, maintenance and use of systems of designed to express computations Computation is a general term for any type of process, algorithm or measurement; this often includes but is not limited to digital data. This includes phenomena ranging from human thinking to calculations with a more narrow meaning. Computation is a process following a well-defined model that is understood and can be expressed in an algorithm, that can be performed by a machine A machine is a device that uses energy to perform some activity. In common usage, the meaning is that of a device having parts that perform or assist in performing any type of work. A simple machine is a device that transforms the direction or magnitude of a force without consuming any energy. The word "machine" is derived from the Latin, particularly a computer A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data//information, and provides output in a useful format. Programming languages can be used to create programs A program is list of instructions written in a programming language that is used to control the behavior of a machine, often a computer that control the behavior of a machine, to express algorithms In mathematics, computer science, and related subjects, an 'algorithm' is an effective method for solving a problem expressed as a finite sequence of instructions. Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and many other fields precisely, or as a mode of human communication.

Many programming languages have some form of written specification of their syntax In linguistics, syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages (form) and semantics Semantics is the study of meaning, usually in language. The word "semantics" itself denotes a range of ideas, from the popular to the highly technical. It is often used in ordinary language to denote a problem of understanding that comes down to word selection or connotation. This problem of understanding has been the subject of many (meaning). Some languages are defined by a specification document. For example, the C C is a general-purpose computer programming language developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system programming language is specified by an ISO The International Organization for Standardization , widely known as ISO (pronounced /ˈaɪsoʊ/ EYE-soe), is an international-standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization promulgates worldwide proprietary industrial and commercial standards. It has Standard. Other languages, such as Perl Perl is a high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier. Since then, it has undergone many changes and revisions and become widely popular amongst programmers. Larry Wall continues to oversee, have a dominant implementation Many combinations of interpretation and compilation are possible, and many modern programming language implementations include elements of both. For example, the Smalltalk programming language is conventionally implemented by compilation into bytecode, which is then either interpreted or compiled by a virtual machine. This implementation strategy that is used as a reference.

The earliest programming languages predate the invention of the computer Before the development of the general-purpose computer, most calculations were done by humans. Tools to help humans calculate were then called calculating machines, by proprietary names, or even as they are now, calculators. It was those humans who used the machines who were then called computers; they are pictures of enormous rooms filled with, and were used to direct the behavior of machines such as Jacquard looms The Jacquard loom is a mechanical loom, invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1801, that simplifies the process of manufacturing textiles with complex patterns such as brocade, damask, and matelasse. The loom is controlled by punchcards with punched holes, each row of which corresponds to one row of the design. Multiple rows of holes are punched on and player pianos A player piano is a self-playing piano, containing a pneumatic or electro-mechanical mechanism that operates the piano action via pre-programmed music perforated paper, or in rare instances, metallic rolls. The rise of the player piano grew with the rise of the mass-produced piano for the home in the late 19th and early 20th century (see Harvey. Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computer field, with many more being created every year. Most programming languages describe computation in an imperative In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of statements that change a program state. In much the same way that imperative mood in natural languages expresses commands to take action, imperative programs define sequences of commands for the computer to perform style, i.e., as a sequence of commands, although some languages, such as those that support functional programming In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state. Functional programming has its roots in the or logic programming Logic programming is, in its broadest sense, the use of mathematical logic for computer programming. In this view of logic programming, which can be traced at least as far back as John McCarthy's advice-taker proposal, logic is used as a purely declarative representation language, and a theorem-prover or model-generator is used as the problem-, use alternative forms of description.

Definitions

A programming language is a notation for writing programs A computer program is a sequence of instructions written to perform a specified task for a computer. A computer requires programs to function, typically executing the program's instructions in a central processor. The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its human-, which are specifications of a computation or algorithm.^[1] Some, but not all, authors restrict the term "programming language" to those languages that can express all possible algorithms.^[1][2] Traits often considered important for what constitutes a programming language include:

• Function and target: A computer programming language is a language^[3] used to write computer programs A computer program is a sequence of instructions written to perform a specified task for a computer. A computer requires programs to function, typically executing the program's instructions in a central processor. The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its human-, which involve a computer A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data//information, and provides output in a useful format performing some kind of computation^[4] or algorithm In mathematics, computer science, and related subjects, an 'algorithm' is an effective method for solving a problem expressed as a finite sequence of instructions. Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and many other fields and possibly control external devices such as printers In computing, a printer is a peripheral which produces a hard copy of documents stored in electronic form, usually on physical print media such as paper or transparencies. Many printers are primarily used as local peripherals, and are attached by a printer cable or, in most newer printers, a USB cable to a computer which serves as a document, disk drives Disk storage or disc storage is a general category of storage mechanisms, in which data are digitally recorded by various electronic, magnetic, optical, or mechanical methods on a surface layer deposited of one or more planar, round and rotating platters. A disk drive is a device implementing such a storage mechanism with fixed or removable media;, robots A robot is an automatically guided machine which is able to do tasks on its own, almost always due to electronically-programmed instructions. Another common characteristic is that by its appearance or movements, a robot often conveys a sense that it has intent or agency of its own,^[5] and so on. For example PostScript PostScript is a dynamically typed concatenative programming language created by John Warnock and Charles Geschke in 1982. PostScript is best known for its use as a page description language in the electronic and desktop publishing areas programs are frequently created by another program to control a computer printer or display. More generally, a programming language may describe computation on some, possibly abstract, machine. It is generally accepted that a complete specification for a programming language includes a description, possibly idealized, of a machine or processor for that language.^[6] In most practical contexts, a programming language involves a computer; consequently programming languages are usually defined and studied this way.^[7] Programming languages differ from natural languages In the philosophy of language, a natural language is any language which arises in an unpremeditated fashion as the result of the innate facility for language possessed by the human intellect. A natural language is typically used for communication, and may be spoken, signed, or written. Natural language is distinguished from constructed languages in that natural languages are only used for interaction between people, while programming languages also allow humans to communicate instructions to machines.

• Abstractions: Programming languages usually contain abstractions The concept originated by analogy with abstraction in mathematics. The mathematical technique of abstraction begins with mathematical definitions; this has the fortunate effect of finessing some of the vexing philosophical issues of abstraction. For example, in both computing and in mathematics, numbers are concepts in the programming languages, for defining and manipulating data structures In computer science, a data structure is a particular way of storing and organizing data in a computer so that it can be used efficiently or controlling the flow of execution In computer science, control flow refers to the order in which the individual statements, instructions, or function calls of an imperative or a declarative program are executed or evaluated. The practical necessity that a programming language support adequate abstractions is expressed by the abstraction principle;^[8] this principle is sometimes formulated as recommendation to the programmer to make proper use of such abstractions.^[9]

• Expressive power: The theory of computation The theory of computation or computer theory is the branch of computer science and mathematics that deals with whether and how efficiently problems can be solved on a model of computation, using an algorithm. The field is divided into two major branches: computability theory and complexity theory, but both branches deal with formal models of classifies languages by the computations they are capable of expressing. All Turing complete Turing completeness, named after Alan Turing, is significant in that every plausible design for a computing device so far advanced can be emulated by a universal Turing machine — an observation that has become known as the Church-Turing thesis. Thus, a machine that can act as a universal Turing machine can, in principle, perform any calculation languages can implement the same set of algorithms In mathematics, computer science, and related subjects, an 'algorithm' is an effective method for solving a problem expressed as a finite sequence of instructions. Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and many other fields. ANSI/ISO SQL SQL , often referred to as Structured Query Language, is a database computer language designed for managing data in relational database management systems (RDBMS), and originally based upon relational algebra. Its scope includes data insert, query, update and delete, schema creation and modification, and data access control. SQL was one of the and Charity Charity is a purely functional experimental programming language, developed at the University of Calgary. Based on ideas by Hagino Tatsuya, it is completely grounded in category theory are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, yet often called programming languages.^[10][11]

Markup languages A markup language is a system for annotating a text in a way which is syntactically distinguishable from that text. Examples include revision instructions by editors, traditionally written with a blue pencil on authors' manuscripts, typesetting instructions such those found in troff and LaTeX, and structural markers such as XML tags. Markup is like XML XML is a set of rules for encoding documents in machine-readable form. It is defined in the XML 1.0 Specification produced by the W3C, and several other related specifications, all gratis open standards, HTML HTML, which stands for HyperText Markup Language, is the predominant markup language for web pages. It provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. It allows images and objects to be embedded and can be used to create interactive forms or troff troff is a document processing system developed by AT&T for the Unix operating system, which define structured data A data model in software engineering is an abstract model that describes how data is represented and accessed. Data models formally define data elements and relationships among data elements for a domain of interest, are not generally considered programming languages.^[12][13][14] Programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined. XSLT XSLT is a declarative, XML-based language used for the transformation of XML documents into other XML documents. The original document is not changed; rather, a new document is created based on the content of an existing one. The new document may be serialized (output) by the processor in standard XML syntax or in another format, such as HTML or, for example, is a Turing complete Turing completeness, named after Alan Turing, is significant in that every plausible design for a computing device so far advanced can be emulated by a universal Turing machine — an observation that has become known as the Church-Turing thesis. Thus, a machine that can act as a universal Turing machine can, in principle, perform any calculation XML dialect.^[15][16][17] Moreover, LaTeX Latex as found in nature is a milky sap-like fluid found in 10% of all flowering plants . It is a complex emulsion consisting of proteins, alkaloids, starches, sugars, oils, tannins, resins, and gums that coagulates on exposure to air. It is usually exuded after tissue injury. In most plants, latex is white, but some have yellow, orange, or, which is mostly used for structuring documents, also contains a Turing complete subset.^[18][19]

The term computer language is sometimes used interchangeably with programming language.^[20] However, the usage of both terms varies among authors, including the exact scope of each. One usage describes programming languages as a subset of computer languages.^[21] In this vein, languages used in computing that have a different goal than expressing computer programs are generically designated computer languages. For instance, markup languages are sometimes referred to as computer languages to emphasize that they are not meant to be used for programming.^[22] Another usage regards programming languages as theoretical constructs for programming abstract machines, and computer languages as the subset thereof that runs on physical computers, which have finite hardware resources.^[23] John C. Reynolds John Reynolds studied at Purdue University and then earned a PhD in theoretical physics from Harvard University in 1961. He was Professor of Information science at Syracuse University from 1970 to 1986. Since then he has been Professor of Computer Science at Carnegie Mellon University. He has held visiting positions at Aarhus University , emphasizes that formal specification In computer science, a formal specification is a mathematical description of software or hardware that may be used to develop an implementation. It describes what the system should do, not how the system should do it. Given such a specification, it is possible to use formal verification techniques to demonstrate that a candidate system design is languages are just as much programming languages as are the languages intended for execution. He also argues that textual and even graphical input formats that affect the behavior of a computer are programming languages, despite the fact they are commonly not Turing-complete, and remarks that ignorance of programming language concepts is the reason for many flaws in input formats.^[24]

Design and implementation

Programming languages share properties with natural languages related to their purpose as vehicles for communication, having a syntactic form separate from its semantics, and showing language families of related languages branching one from another.^[3] But as artificial constructs, they also differ in fundamental ways from languages that have evolved through usage. A significant difference is that a programming language can be fully described and studied in its entirety, since it has a precise and finite definition.^[25] By contrast, natural languages have changing meanings given by their users in different communities. While constructed languages A planned or constructed language—known colloquially or informally as a conlang—is a language whose phonology, grammar, and/or vocabulary have been consciously devised by an individual or group, instead of having evolved naturally. There are many possible reasons to create a constructed language: to ease human communication ; to bring fiction are also artificial languages designed from the ground up with a specific purpose, they lack the precise and complete semantic definition that a programming language has.

Many languages have been designed from scratch, altered to meet new needs, combined with other languages, and eventually fallen into disuse. Although there have been attempts to design one "universal" programming language that serves all purposes, all of them have failed to be generally accepted as filling this role.^[26] The need for diverse programming languages arises from the diversity of contexts in which languages are used:

• Programs range from tiny scripts written by individual hobbyists to huge systems written by hundreds of programmers A programmer, computer programmer or coder is someone who writes computer software. The term computer programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of computer programming or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. One who practices or professes a formal approach to programming may also be known as a programmer analyst. A.
• Programmers range in expertise from novices who need simplicity above all else, to experts who may be comfortable with considerable complexity.
• Programs must balance speed, size, and simplicity on systems ranging from microcontrollers A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to to supercomputers A supercomputer is a computer that is at the frontline of current processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation. Supercomputers were introduced in the 1960s and were designed primarily by Seymour Cray at Control Data Corporation , which led the market into the 1970s until Cray left to form his own company, Cray Research. He then took over.
• Programs may be written once and not change for generations, or they may undergo continual modification.
• Finally, programmers may simply differ in their tastes: they may be accustomed to discussing problems and expressing them in a particular language.

One common trend in the development of programming languages has been to add more ability to solve problems using a higher level of abstraction The concept originated by analogy with abstraction in mathematics. The mathematical technique of abstraction begins with mathematical definitions; this has the fortunate effect of finessing some of the vexing philosophical issues of abstraction. For example, in both computing and in mathematics, numbers are concepts in the programming languages,. The earliest programming languages were tied very closely to the underlying hardware of the computer. As new programming languages have developed, features have been added that let programmers express ideas that are more remote from simple translation into underlying hardware instructions. Because programmers are less tied to the complexity of the computer, their programs can do more computing with less effort from the programmer. This lets them write more functionality per time unit.^[27]

Natural language processors have been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate. Edsger W. Dijkstra took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of meaningless constructs, and dismissed natural language programming as "foolish".^[28] Alan Perlis was similarly dismissive of the idea.^[29]

A language's designers and users must construct a number of artifacts that govern and enable the practice of programming. The most important of these artifacts are the language specification and implementation.

Specification

The specification of a programming language is intended to provide a definition that the language users and the implementors can use to determine whether the behavior of a program is correct, given its source code.

A programming language specification can take several forms, including the following:

• An explicit definition of the syntax, static semantics, and execution semantics of the language. While syntax is commonly specified using a formal grammar, semantic definitions may be written in natural language (e.g., as in the C language), or a formal semantics (e.g., as in Standard ML^[30] and Scheme^[31] specifications).
• A description of the behavior of a translator for the language (e.g., the C++ and Fortran specifications). The syntax and semantics of the language have to be inferred from this description, which may be written in natural or a formal language.
• A reference or model implementation, sometimes written in the language being specified (e.g., Prolog or ANSI REXX^[32]). The syntax and semantics of the language are explicit in the behavior of the reference implementation.

Implementation

An implementation of a programming language provides a way to execute that program on one or more configurations of hardware and software. There are, broadly, two approaches to programming language implementation: compilation and interpretation. It is generally possible to implement a language using either technique.

The output of a compiler may be executed by hardware or a program called an interpreter. In some implementations that make use of the interpreter approach there is no distinct boundary between compiling and interpreting. For instance, some implementations of BASIC compile and then execute the source a line at a time.

Programs that are executed directly on the hardware usually run several orders of magnitude faster than those that are interpreted in software.^{[citation needed]}

One technique for improving the performance of interpreted programs is just-in-time compilation. Here the virtual machine, just before execution, translates the blocks of bytecode which are going to be used to machine code, for direct execution on the hardware.

Usage

Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computing field.^[33] Programming languages differ from most other forms of human expression in that they require a greater degree of precision and completeness. When using a natural language to communicate with other people, human authors and speakers can be ambiguous and make small errors, and still expect their intent to be understood. However, figuratively speaking, computers "do exactly what they are told to do", and cannot "understand" what code the programmer intended to write. The combination of the language definition, a program, and the program's inputs must fully specify the external behavior that occurs when the program is executed, within the domain of control of that program.

A programming language provides a structured mechanism for defining pieces of data, and the operations or transformations that may be carried out automatically on that data. A programmer uses the abstractions present in the language to represent the concepts involved in a computation. These concepts are represented as a collection of the simplest elements available (called primitives).^[34] Programming is the process by which programmers combine these primitives to compose new programs, or adapt existing ones to new uses or a changing environment.

Programs for a computer might be executed in a batch process without human interaction, or a user might type commands in an interactive session of an interpreter. In this case the "commands" are simply programs, whose execution is chained together. When a language is used to give commands to a software application (such as a shell) it is called a scripting language.^{[citation needed]}

Measuring language usage

It is difficult to determine which programming languages are most widely used, and what usage means varies by context. One language may occupy the greater number of programmer hours, a different one have more lines of code, and a third utilize the most CPU time. Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications. For example, COBOL is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large mainframes; FORTRAN in engineering applications; C in embedded applications and operating systems; and other languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications.

Various methods of measuring language popularity, each subject to a different bias over what is measured, have been proposed:

• counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language^[35]
• the number of books sold that teach or describe the language^[36]
• estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language—which may underestimate languages not often found in public searches^[37]
• counts of language references (i.e., to the name of the language) found using a web search engine.

Combining and averaging information from various internet sites, langpop.com claims that ^[38] in 2008 the 10 most cited programming languages are (in alphabetical order): C, C++, C#, Java, JavaScript, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, and SQL.

Taxonomies

There is no overarching classification scheme for programming languages. A given programming language does not usually have a single ancestor language. Languages commonly arise by combining the elements of several predecessor languages with new ideas in circulation at the time. Ideas that originate in one language will diffuse throughout a family of related languages, and then leap suddenly across familial gaps to appear in an entirely different family.

The task is further complicated by the fact that languages can be classified along multiple axes. For example, Java is both an object-oriented language (because it encourages object-oriented organization) and a concurrent language (because it contains built-in constructs for running multiple threads in parallel).

In broad strokes, programming languages divide into programming paradigms and a classification by intended domain of use. Traditionally, programming languages have been regarded as describing computation in terms of imperative sentences, i.e. issuing commands. These are generally called imperative programming languages. A great deal of research in programming languages has been aimed at blurring the distinction between a program as a set of instructions and a program as an assertion about the desired answer, which is the main feature of declarative programming.^[39] More refined paradigms include procedural programming, object-oriented programming, functional programming, and logic programming; some languages are hybrids of paradigms or multi-paradigmatic. An assembly language is not so much a paradigm as a direct model of an underlying machine architecture. By purpose, programming languages might be considered general purpose, system programming languages, scripting languages, domain-specific languages, or concurrent/distributed languages (or a combination of these).^[40] Some general purpose languages were designed largely with educational goals.^[41]

A programming language may also be classified by factors unrelated to programming paradigm. For instance, most programming languages use English language keywords, while a minority do not. Other languages may be classified as being esoteric or not.

History

Early developments

The first programming languages predate the modern computer. The 19th century had "programmable" looms and player piano scrolls which implemented what are today recognized as examples of domain-specific languages. By the beginning of the twentieth century, punch cards encoded data and directed mechanical processing. In the 1930s and 1940s, the formalisms of Alonzo Church's lambda calculus and Alan Turing's Turing machines provided mathematical abstractions for expressing algorithms; the lambda calculus remains influential in language design.^[42]

In the 1940s, the first electrically powered digital computers were created. The first high-level programming language to be designed for a computer was Plankalkül, developed for the German Z3 by Konrad Zuse between 1943 and 1945. However, it was not implemented until 1998 and 2000.^[43]

Programmers of early 1950s computers, notably UNIVAC I and IBM 701, used machine language programs, that is, the first generation language (1GL). 1GL programming was quickly superseded by similarly machine-specific, but mnemonic, second generation languages (2GL) known as assembly languages or "assembler". Later in the 1950s, assembly language programming, which had evolved to include the use of macro instructions, was followed by the development of "third generation" programming languages (3GL), such as FORTRAN, LISP, and COBOL.^[44] 3GLs are more abstract and are "portable", or at least implemented similarly on computers that do not support the same native machine code. Updated versions of all of these 3GLs are still in general use, and each has strongly influenced the development of later languages.^[45] At the end of the 1950s, the language formalized as ALGOL 60 was introduced, and most later programming languages are, in many respects, descendants of Algol.^[45] The format and use of the early programming languages was heavily influenced by the constraints of the interface.^[46]

Refinement

The period from the 1960s to the late 1970s brought the development of the major language paradigms now in use, though many aspects were refinements of ideas in the very first Third-generation programming languages:

• APL introduced array programming and influenced functional programming.^[47]
• PL/I (NPL) was designed in the early 1960s to incorporate the best ideas from FORTRAN and COBOL.
• In the 1960s, Simula was the first language designed to support object-oriented programming; in the mid-1970s, Smalltalk followed with the first "purely" object-oriented language.
• C was developed between 1969 and 1973 as a system programming language, and remains popular.^[48]
• Prolog, designed in 1972, was the first logic programming language.
• In 1978, ML built a polymorphic type system on top of Lisp, pioneering statically typed functional programming languages.

Each of these languages spawned an entire family of descendants, and most modern languages count at least one of them in their ancestry.

The 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over the merits of structured programming, and whether programming languages should be designed to support it.^[49] Edsger Dijkstra, in a famous 1968 letter published in the Communications of the ACM, argued that GOTO statements should be eliminated from all "higher level" programming languages.^[50]

The 1960s and 1970s also saw expansion of techniques that reduced the footprint of a program as well as improved productivity of the programmer and user. The card deck for an early 4GL was a lot smaller for the same functionality expressed in a 3GL deck.

Consolidation and growth

The 1980s were years of relative consolidation. C++ combined object-oriented and systems programming. The United States government standardized Ada, a systems programming language derived from Pascal and intended for use by defense contractors. In Japan and elsewhere, vast sums were spent investigating so-called "fifth generation" languages that incorporated logic programming constructs.^[51] The functional languages community moved to standardize ML and Lisp. Rather than inventing new paradigms, all of these movements elaborated upon the ideas invented in the previous decade.

One important trend in language design during the 1980s was an increased focus on programming for large-scale systems through the use of modules, or large-scale organizational units of code. Modula-2, Ada, and ML all developed notable module systems in the 1980s, although other languages, such as PL/I, already had extensive support for modular programming. Module systems were often wedded to generic programming constructs.^[52]

The rapid growth of the Internet in the mid-1990s created opportunities for new languages. Perl, originally a Unix scripting tool first released in 1987, became common in dynamic websites. Java came to be used for server-side programming. These developments were not fundamentally novel, rather they were refinements to existing languages and paradigms, and largely based on the C family of programming languages.

Programming language evolution continues, in both industry and research. Current directions include security and reliability verification, new kinds of modularity (mixins, delegates, aspects), and database integration such as Microsoft's LINQ.

The 4GLs are examples of languages which are domain-specific, such as SQL, which manipulates and returns sets of data rather than the scalar values which are canonical to most programming languages. Perl, for example, with its 'here document' can hold multiple 4GL programs, as well as multiple JavaScript programs, in part of its own perl code and use variable interpolation in the 'here document' to support multi-language programming.^[53]

See also

• Comparison of programming languages (basic instructions)
• Comparison of programming languages
• Computer programming
• Computer science and Outline of computer science
• Educational programming language
• Invariant based programming
• Lists of programming languages
• List of programming language researchers
• Literate programming
• Dialect (computing)
• Programming language theory
• Pseudocode
• Scientific language
• Software engineering and List of software engineering topics

References

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2. ^ In mathematical terms, this means the programming language is Turing-complete MacLennan, Bruce J. (1987). Principles of Programming Languages. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-511306-3.
3. ^ ^{a b} Steven R. Fischer, A history of language, Reaktion Books, 2003, ISBN 186189080X, p. 205
4. ^ ACM SIGPLAN (2003). "Bylaws of the Special Interest Group on Programming Languages of the Association for Computing Machinery". http://www.acm.org/sigs/sigplan/sigplan_bylaws.htm. Retrieved 2006-06-19. , The scope of SIGPLAN is the theory, design, implementation, description, and application of computer programming languages - languages that permit the specification of a variety of different computations, thereby providing the user with significant control (immediate or delayed) over the computer's operation.
5. ^ Dean, Tom (2002). "Programming Robots". Building Intelligent Robots. Brown University Department of Computer Science. http://www.cs.brown.edu/people/tld/courses/cs148/02/programming.html. Retrieved 2006-09-23.
6. ^ R. Narasimahan, Programming Languages and Computers: A Unified Metatheory, pp. 189--247 in Franz Alt, Morris Rubinoff (eds.) Advances in computers, Volume 8, Academic Press, 1994, ISBN 012012108, p.193 : "a complete specification of a programming language must, by definition, include a specification of a processor--idealized, if you will--for that language." [the source cites many references to support this statement]
7. ^ Ben Ari, Mordechai (1996). Understanding Programming Languages". John Wiley and Sons. "Programs and languages can be defined as purely formal mathematical objects. However, more people are interested in programs than in other mathematical objects such as groups, precisely because it is possible to use the program—the sequence of symbols—to control the execution of a computer. While we highly recommend the study of the theory of programming, this text will generally limit itself to the study of programs as they are executed on a computer."
8. ^ David A. Schmidt, The structure of typed programming languages, MIT Press, 1994, ISBN 0262193493, p. 32
9. ^ Pierce, Benjamin (2002). Types and Programming Languages. MIT Press. p. 339. ISBN 0-262-16209-1.
10. ^ Digital Equipment Corporation. "Information Technology - Database Language SQL (Proposed revised text of DIS 9075)". ISO/IEC 9075:1992, Database Language SQL. http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~shadow/sql/sql1992.txt. Retrieved June 29, 2006.
11. ^ The Charity Development Group (December 1996). "The CHARITY Home Page". http://pll.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/charity1/www/home.html. Retrieved 2006-06-29. , Charity is a categorical programming language..., All Charity computations terminate.
12. ^ XML in 10 points W3C, 1999, XML is not a programming language.
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15. ^ http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/x-xslt/
16. ^ http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms767587(VS.85).aspx
17. ^ Scott, Michael (2006). Programming Language Pragmatics. Morgan Kaufmann. p. 802. ISBN 0-12-633951-1. "XSLT, though highly specialized to the transformation of XML, is a Turing-complete programming language."
18. ^ http://tobi.oetiker.ch/lshort/lshort.pdf
19. ^ Syropoulos, Apostolos; Antonis Tsolomitis, Nick Sofroniou (2003). Digital typography using LaTeX. Springer-Verlag. p. 213. ISBN 0-387-95217-9. "TeX is not only an excellent typesetting engine but also a real programming language."
20. ^ Robert A. Edmunds, The Prentice-Hall standard glossary of computer terminology, Prentice-Hall, 1985, p. 91
21. ^ Pascal Lando, Anne Lapujade, Gilles Kassel, and Frédéric Fürst, Towards a General Ontology of Computer Programs, ICSOFT 2007, pp. 163-170
22. ^ S.K. Bajpai, Introduction To Computers And C Programming, New Age International, 2007, ISBN 812241379X, p. 346
23. ^ R. Narasimahan, Programming Languages and Computers: A Unified Metatheory, pp. 189--247 in Franz Alt, Morris Rubinoff (eds.) Advances in computers, Volume 8, Academic Press, 1994, ISBN 012012108, p.215: "[...] the model [...] for computer languages differs from that [...] for programming languages in only two respects. In a computer language, there are only finitely many names--or registers--which can assume only finitely many values--or states--and these states are not further distinguished in terms of any other attributes. [author's footnote:] This may sound like a truism but its implications are far reaching. For example, it would imply that any model for programming languages, by fixing certain of its parameters or features, should be reducible in a natural way to a model for computer languages."
24. ^ John C. Reynolds, Some thoughts on teaching programming and programming languages, SIGPLAN Notices, Volume 43, Issue 11, November 2008, p.109
25. ^ Jing Huang. "Artificial Language vs. Natural Language". http://www.cs.cornell.edu/info/Projects/Nuprl/cs611/fall94notes/cn2/subsection3_1_3.html.
26. ^ IBM in first publishing PL/I, for example, rather ambitiously titled its manual The universal programming language PL/I (IBM Library; 1966). The title reflected IBM's goals for unlimited subsetting capability: PL/I is designed in such a way that one can isolate subsets from it satisfying the requirements of particular applications. ("Encyclopaedia of Mathematics » P » PL/I". SpringerLink. http://eom.springer.de/P/p072885.htm. Retrieved June 29, 2006. ). Ada and UNCOL had similar early goals.
27. ^ Frederick P. Brooks, Jr.: The Mythical Man-Month, Addison-Wesley, 1982, pp. 93-94
28. ^ Dijkstra, Edsger W. On the foolishness of "natural language programming." EWD667.
29. ^ Perlis, Alan, Epigrams on Programming. SIGPLAN Notices Vol. 17, No. 9, September 1982, pp. 7-13
30. ^ Milner, R.; M. Tofte, R. Harper and D. MacQueen. (1997). The Definition of Standard ML (Revised). MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-63181-4.
31. ^ Kelsey, Richard; William Clinger and Jonathan Rees (February 1998). "Section 7.2 Formal semantics". Revised⁵ Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme. http://www.schemers.org/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-10.html#%_sec_7.2. Retrieved 2006-06-09.
32. ^ ANSI — Programming Language Rexx, X3-274.1996
33. ^ "HOPL: an interactive Roster of Programming Languages". Australia: Murdoch University. http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/. Retrieved 2009-06-01. "This site lists 8512 languages."
34. ^ Abelson, Sussman, and Sussman. "Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs". http://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/full-text/book/book-Z-H-10.html. Retrieved 2009-03-03.
35. ^ Survey of Job advertisements mentioning a given language
36. ^ Counting programming languages by book sales
37. ^ Bieman, J.M.; Murdock, V., Finding code on the World Wide Web: a preliminary investigation, Proceedings First IEEE International Workshop on Source Code Analysis and Manipulation, 2001
38. ^ Programming Language Popularity
39. ^ Carl A. Gunter, Semantics of Programming Languages: Structures and Techniques, MIT Press, 1992, ISBN 0262570955, p. 1
40. ^ "TUNES: Programming Languages". http://tunes.org/wiki/programming_20languages.html.
41. ^ Wirth, Niklaus (1993). "Recollections about the development of Pascal". Proc. 2nd ACM SIGPLAN conference on history of programming languages: 333–342. doi:10.1145/154766.155378. http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=155378. Retrieved 2006-06-30.
42. ^ Benjamin C. Pierce writes:

    "... the lambda calculus has seen widespread use in the specification of programming language features, in language design and implementation, and in the study of type systems."

    Pierce, Benjamin C. (2002). Types and Programming Languages. MIT Press. p. 52. ISBN 0-262-16209-1.
43. ^ Rojas, Raúl, et al. (2000). "Plankalkül: The First High-Level Programming Language and its Implementation". Institut für Informatik, Freie Universität Berlin, Technical Report B-3/2000. (full text)
44. ^ Linda Null, Julia Lobur, The essentials of computer organization and architecture, Edition 2, Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 2006, ISBN 0763737690, p. 435
45. ^ ^{a b} O'Reilly Media. "History of programming languages" (PDF). http://www.oreilly.com/news/graphics/prog_lang_poster.pdf. Retrieved October 5, 2006.
46. ^ Frank da Cruz. IBM Punch Cards Columbia University Computing History.
47. ^ Richard L. Wexelblat: History of Programming Languages, Academic Press, 1981, chapter XIV.
48. ^ François Labelle. "Programming Language Usage Graph". SourceForge. http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~flab/languages.html. Retrieved June 21, 2006. . This comparison analyzes trends in number of projects hosted by a popular community programming repository. During most years of the comparison, C leads by a considerable margin; in 2006, Java overtakes C, but the combination of C/C++ still leads considerably.
49. ^ Hayes, Brian (2006), "The Semicolon Wars", American Scientist 94 (4): 299–303
50. ^ Dijkstra, Edsger W. (March 1968). "Go To Statement Considered Harmful". Communications of the ACM 11 (3): 147–148. doi:10.1145/362929.362947. http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/. Retrieved 2006-06-29.
51. ^ Tetsuro Fujise, Takashi Chikayama Kazuaki Rokusawa, Akihiko Nakase (December 1994). "KLIC: A Portable Implementation of KL1" Proc. of FGCS '94, ICOT Tokyo, December 1994. KLIC is a portable implementation of a concurrent logic programming language KL1.
52. ^ Jim Bender (March 15, 2004). "Mini-Bibliography on Modules for Functional Programming Languages". ReadScheme.org. http://readscheme.org/modules/. Retrieved 2006-09-27.
53. ^ Wall, Programming Perl ISBN 0-596-00027-8 p.66

Further reading

• Daniel P. Friedman, Mitchell Wand, Christopher Thomas Haynes: Essentials of Programming Languages, The MIT Press 2001.
• David Gelernter, Suresh Jagannathan: Programming Linguistics, The MIT Press 1990.
• Shriram Krishnamurthi: Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation, online publication.
• Bruce J. MacLennan: Principles of Programming Languages: Design, Evaluation, and Implementation, Oxford University Press 1999.
• John C. Mitchell: Concepts in Programming Languages, Cambridge University Press 2002.
• Benjamin C. Pierce: Types and Programming Languages, The MIT Press 2002.
• Ravi Sethi: Programming Languages: Concepts and Constructs, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley 1996.
• Michael L. Scott: Programming Language Pragmatics, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers 2005.
• Richard L. Wexelblat (ed.): History of Programming Languages, Academic Press 1981.

External links

• 99 Bottles of Beer A collection of implementations in many languages.
• Computer Programming Languages at the Open Directory Project
• Syntax Patterns for Various Languages

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